The Hoorn Manual of Style
Second edition, updated 2023 Mar. 20Over the years, i have picked up so many little idiosyncracies in my wielding of the English tongue that i thought it would be prudent to compile them all in one place. I would like to preëmptively apologise to Chaucer, Shakespeare, and Austen for how i have massacred their language…
1. Spelling
Use British English spellings and terminology.
- colour; endeavour; flavour; honour; humour; neighbour
- calibre; centre; litre; sabre; sombre; theatre
- defence; offence; pretence
- analogue; catalogue; dialogue; monologue
- cancelling; jewellery; signalling; travelling; tranquillise
- ageing; likeable; programme (even for computers); tonne
- aeroplane; aluminium; (an) annexe; artefact; cheque; chilli; grey; (a) kerb; plough; pyjamas; sceptic
Prefer the endings -ise and -yse over -ize and -yze, unless it would be etymologically improper.
- analyse; organisation; realise
- but
- capsize; resize; seize
If a spelling of a Græco-Latinate word with ae or oe is still in use, it should generally be spelt with a ligature æ or œ. Watch out for false friends: many ae and oe words originate from other languages or originally represented two separate syllables.
- æon; æsthetics; archæology; chamæleon; encyclopædia; fæces; gynæcology; mediæval; palæontology; pædiatric
- amœba; cœliac; diarrhœa; fœtus; homœopathy; manœuvre; œstrogen; phœnix
- but
- aeroplane; aerosol; maelstrom; Phoenix, Ariz.; toe
- economics; enigma; premium
When double ees and oos mark two separate sounds, the latter letter should be topped with a diæresis.1
- coöperate; deëmphasise; Laocoön; reëlection; zoölogy
- also
- naïveté
- but
- continuum; radii; reunion
1.1 Capitalisation
Prefer ‘down style’ to ‘up style’; if something can be lowercased, it generally should be.
- the prime minister
- the internet
- the world wide web
- the government
Titles (when used in front of names) and proper names of states and countries should be capitalised, however:
- The prime minister of Canada met President Biden on Sunday.
- the United States of America; the People’s Republic of China
- but
- the republic of Ireland (the country’s official name is just Ireland)
Decapitalise the pronoun i when not at the start of a sentence.
- I thought i’d left it over there.
Acronyms (that is, abbreviations of initial letters pronounced as one word) should be set in title case when referring to proper nouns and organisations, and in lowercase when referring to common nouns and verbs.
- Aim; Gestapo; Latex; Nasa; Nato; Ukip; Unicef
- aids; bios; captcha; covid-19; gif; jpeg; laser; radar; scuba
Initialisms (those abbreviations pronounced as the individual letters) should be set in small caps, unless referring to the names of people or states.
- AM; BBC; CD; FBI; GCHQ; HTML; LGBT; NAACP
- but
- IDS; JFK; UK; USA
Colour terms used in reference to ethnicity — black, brown, white — should usually be lowercase, but may be capped up if they form part of a compound term.
- Rock music has its roots in the syncretism of black and white musical traditions.
- The indigenous tribes of Papua New Guinea are among the world’s most diverse.
- This is fine too:
- Born to a Black Caribbean family, she suspected she also had some Native American ancestry.
Use lowercase pagan in reference to pre-modern polytheistic faiths; use uppercase Pagan for the modern revival movement. Emperor Julian was a pagan; Gerald Gardner was a Pagan. Similarly, use lowercase witch for anyone alleged to practise the magic arts; use uppercase Witch for practitioners of Wicca or the many other related latter-day religious movements.
1.2 Punctuation
Use em and en dashes for their proper functions, setting off em dashes with a thin space on either side.
- Excuse me — is this the London–Manchester train?
The difference between quote marks, apostrophes, primes, and so on can get confusing quickly. There follows a short guide on their proper use.
“ ”, ‘ ’: These are quote marks, used to mark when a person is speaking or for sarcastic effect as ‘scare quotes’. In keeping with British usage, punctuation should be kept outside of the quote marks if it does not form a part of the quote itself.
- “Reports have started trickling in of a ‘gigantic explosion’ near Jesmond.”
- ‘The explosion was an “unexpected consequence of getting a pet cat”, said Aurora after the dust had settled.’
In Dutch, use the traditional „ ” form, with the left side aligned beneath the text.
- „En hoe moest ík weten dat de kat een blok c4 bij zich had‽”
’: This is an apostrophe, used to mark possession and contraction.
- Aisha’s car
- the teachers’ union
- ’twas
- don’t
ʻ ʼ: These are an ʻokina and a saltillo, used to denote glottal stops (like the gap in the middle of uh-oh) in various foreign language. Some of these languages, most notably Hawaiʻian, have imported words back into English.
- ʻaʻā
- Hawaiʻi
- Oʻahu
- ‘ō‘ō
′ ″: These are a prime and a double prime, most often used to notate feet and inches or arcminutes and arcseconds.
- I’m 6′ 2″.
- 49° 12′ 1″ north, 3° 33′ 2″ east
' ": These are ‘dumb quotes’, the ones you’ll find on your keyboard. They should only be used in verbatim transcriptions of computer code.
console.log("Beware the Jabberwock, my son!");
'0.1' + '0.2' != '0.3'
2. Terminology
- æther, ether
-
The æther is the emptiness of space. An ether is a type of chemical.
- Americanisms
-
As said previously, British terminology should be preferred to its Stateside equivalent. The following table lists some words which tend to catch me out.
British English United States English autocue teleprompter full stop period gherkin pickle (as a noun) number plate license plate series (of television) season solicitor attorney sledge sled storey (of a building) story stand (for election) run torch flashlight windscreen windshield - content
-
Avoid the word content at all costs. A filmmaker makes films, an author writes books, and yet we on the internet make content — as if our work only exists to fill up space between the ads!
- dæmon, demon
-
A dæmon is a good or neutral guiding spirit. A demon is a malevolent entity.
- dates
-
Prefer CE and BCE to AD and BC.
When writing dates numerically, use the year–month–day format.
- 1776/07/04
- 1952·02·06
- 1963.11.23
- 2001-09-11
Feel free to write, alongside the Gregorian date, the equivalent date in the Attic festival calendar.
- demonyms
-
Some countries and territories have unexpected adjectives or terms for their residents. A choice list can be found in the table below.
Place name Demonym Adjective Countries & territories Botswana a Motswana, many Batswana Botswanan or Motswana Burkina Faso a Burkinabé ⁓ Côte d’Ivoire an Ivorian ⁓ Dominica a Dominican2 ⁓ the Dominican Republic a Dominican3 or Quisqueyano/a (poetic) Dominican or Quisqueyan (poetic) Eswatini a or many Swazi or Swati Swazi Kiribati an or many I-Kiribati Gilbertese Lesotho a Mosotho, many Basotho Basotho Madagascar a or many Malagasy ⁓ Monaco a Monégasque ⁓ Myanmar N/A Myanma or Burmese Niger a Nigerien or Nigerois ⁓ the Philippines a Filipino/a Filipino or Philippine the Seychelles a or many Seychellois ⁓ St. Vincent and the Grenadines a Vincentian ⁓ the United Arab Emirates an Emirati ⁓ Vanuatu a or many Ni-Vanuatu ⁓ US states (generally no adjectival form) Connecticut a Nutmegger or Connecticuter Hawaiʻi a Kamaʻāina Hawaiʻian4 Illinois an Illinoian or Illinoisian Indiana a Hoosier Maine a Down Easter or Mainer Massachusetts a Bay Stater, Massachusettsan, or (vulgar) Masshole Michigan a Michigander or Michiganian New Hampshire a New Hampshirite Utah a Utahn Many countries use different words for the ethnic group native to the area than to refer to anyone who happens to live there: Croats versus Croatians, Fijians versus Fiji Islanders, Azeris versus Azerbaijanis, that sort of thing.
- euphemisms and jargon
-
Avoid mealy-mouthed euphemisms unless you’re using them for comedic effect (say, answering nature’s call instead of gannin’ for a piss). Jargon — as is terribly common in the LGBT community, for whatever reason — should also be avoided and replaced with something people are more likely to understand.
Some terms to avoid:
What people say What they mean AGAB or assigned gender at birth birth sex Bame, people of colour, Bipoc, &c. ethnic minority, non-white, or be specific CSAM child porn deadname birth name differently abled disabled enhanced interrogation torture gender confirmation surgery a sex change5 or be specific the global south, the third world, or the developing world poor(er) countries human-rights abuses be specific problematic be specific racially charged racist sunset (a product) shut down unhoused homeless - geography
-
The naming of places can be a surprisingly geopolitically pernickety issue — see, for example, many Persian Gulf states’ politically correct renaming to the Arabian Gulf, or the perennial tendency of narcissistic autocrats to bestow their own names upon cities.
In general, if a place’s historic English name is still in common use today, that should be the name one uses. For example:
- Bangalore (not Bengaluru)
- Beijing (not Peking)
- Brunswick (not Braunschweig)
- Calcutta (not Kolkata)
- Derry (not Londonderry)
- The Hague (no matter how much i want to call it Den Haag)
- Hanover (with one N)
- Istanbul (neither Constantinople nor İstanbul)
- Jaffa (not Yafo)
- Kyiv (not Kiev)6
- Mecca (not Makkah)
- Mumbai (not Bombay)
- Saigon (not Ho Chi Minh City)
- Thessalonica (it’s complicated but just pick one and stick with it)
- Gypsies and Roma
-
Gypsy (capped up, since it refers primarily to an ethnic group) is the accepted term in the UK, but likely to cause offence internationally — use Roma if referring to those outside the UK or writing for an international audience.
- hedge words
-
Hedge words (‘kind of’, ‘a little’, ‘somewhat’, ‘rather’) are like weeds, slipping in and infesting perfectly good texts. Before hitting the save button on a paragraph which includes one, take a moment to consider whether you need it.
- licence, license
-
Licence is a noun. To license is a verb.
- measurement
-
Either metric or imperial, as used in the UK,7 may be used on English-language pages. Dutch pages should use exclusively metric.
- meter, metre
-
A meter is a device used to measure something. A metre is the international standard unit of length.
- names
-
The best source for how to spell someone’s name is the person themself. If they’re long dead, don’t speak fluent English, or both… well, nobody’s going to lose sleep over Gadaffi versus Qadhafi.
After the first mention of a person, they should usually be referred to with a courtesy title, such as the following.
- Mr
- Ms
- Mx
- Dr
- Prof
Note that names differ throughout cultures. In eastern Asia and Hungary, surnames come before the given name, and Icelanders, Ethiopians, and some Indonesians don’t have surnames in the first place.
- Cerice van Houten → Ms van Houten
- Daði Freyr Pétursson → Mr Daði or Mr Pétursson
- Lisa Nandy → Ms Nandy
- Orbán Viktor → Mr Orban
- Sam Smith → Mx Smith
- Stephen Hawking → Prof Hawking
- Sukarno → Mr Sukarno
- Takeuchi Mariya → Ms Takeuchi
- Tedros Adhanom → Dr Tedros
- Xi Jinping → Mr Xi
Many Commonwealth countries issue people with the titles “Sir” and “Dame” as part of an order of chivalry. Sirs and dames may be referred to either by their title and their given name or one of the above courtesy titles and their surname.
- Dame Jocelyn Bell Burnell → Dame Jocelyn or Ms Bell Burnell
- Sir Patrick Stewart → Sir Patrick or Mr Stewart
- practice, practise
-
Practice is a noun. To practise is a verb.
- version numbering
-
“Semantic versioning” (1.12.3, 5.0.4, that sort of thing), as beloved by techies of all stripes, will only lead to ruin. If you’re going to keep a version number, use this more date-based scheme:
- Version 2015E
- 2015: Year of release
- E: May
- Version 2023C6
- 2023: Year of release
- C: March
- 6: Sixth version of the month
Monthly letter codes Code Month name Code Month name A January G July B February H August C March J September D April K October E May L November F June M December - Version 2015E
- who, whom
-
Who gives a shit?
2.1 A table of preferred and correct spellings
- 2D, 3D
- ʻAbdu’l-Bahá
- accommodate
- æsthetic
- Albuquerque
- ancillary
- Richard Ayoade
- Baháʼu’lláh
- bellwether
- Hawaiʻi
- Hallowe’en
- led (the past tense of ‘lead’)
- Aleksandr Lukashenko
- Mao Tse-tung
- Massachusetts
- millennium (think ‘milli-’ and ‘annual’)
- Benjamin Netanyahu
- pastime
- publicly (no such word as ‘publical’)
- Reykjavík
- Sukarno
- Volodymyr Zelenskyy
3. Markup
Use <em>
when a change of tone is implied. When the font choice is merely stylistic, use <i>
.
<i>
Homo sapiens</i>
is a<em>
very</em>
interesting animal.
Use sidenotes for ancillary information. If something would be too unwieldy for a sidenote, feel free to use a <details>
element instead.
Make images as lightweight as possible without sacrificing detail. It’s the kind thing to do for those of us with poor connections.
3.1 Accessibility
All non-decorative images should have descriptive alt text or an attached transcript.
Video files should come with subtitles and, if what people are saying within is important to the text, a transcript.
Make sure text and background colours have at least AA-grade contrast. WhoCanUse.com is a good tool for checking this sort of thing.
3.2 URLs
Page URLs should be short, but not opaque, following in the footsteps of Qntm.org’s scheme. Take the linkroll. satyrs.eu
would be unwieldy, and satyrs.eu/l
utterly unhelpful. satyrs.eu/linkroll
is concise, memorable, and to the point.
4. Faith
Typeset the Gods’ names and untranslated epithets in small caps.
- Apollon Acestor; Dionysos Zagreus; Hermaphroditos-Salmacis
- but
- owl-eyed Athena; silver-quivered Apollon
- however, also
- Earth
This also goes for terms derived from Their names, unless said names also refer to common nouns in the original Greek.
- Bacchanalian; Hermetically sealed
- but
- geology; oceanic
Nouns and pronouns referring directly to a God should be capped up.
- Apollon the Archer stretches His glittering bow back…
If a God’s name or derivative thereof is used as a personal name, eschew the small caps.
- Denis Thatcher
- Dionysius Exiguus
- Freya Ridings
- Venus Williams
For reasons of consistency, do not typeset days and months named after Gods in small caps.
- Tuesday; Wednesday; Thursday; Friday; Saturday
- January; March; May; June
5. General guidelines for the site
Try to keep it the equivalent of a BBFC 15 rating. Innuendo is fine, but please don’t explicitly detail people’s sexcapades or horrible injuries.
Don’t get too deep into tech-nerdery. Making your website all about the technology you used to build it would be like Michelangelo using his talents to make a giant statue of a chisel.
Avoid politics if at all possible. I, for one, surf the ’net to get away from all of the horrible things of real life, and would rather not hear about whatever Boris Johnson has done this time. (Equal-opportunity snark about upcoming elections may be acceptable.)
There are enough miserable, cynical louts on the internet, and you mustn’t let yourself join them. It’s a beautiful wide world out there, and you’re going to spend it kvetching on your website about what someone said on the internet? No thank you!
Plain English is well and good if you’re writing an instruction manual, but for anything else, you will soon find yourself drowning in a sterility that makes the eyes glaze over. Throw out the guides of Orwell, Strunk, and White, and instead consider the advice of the theologian David Bentley Hart:
Always use the word that most exactly means what you wish to say, in utter indifference to how common or familiar that word happens to be. A writer should never fret over what his or her readers may or may not know, and should worry only about underestimating them. As Nabokov said, a good reader always comes prepared with a dictionary and never resents being introduced to a new term. I call this the “ultracrepidarian rule,” simply because an editor once tried unsuccessfully to dissuade me from writing about a certain “polemicist who stumbles across unseen disciplinary boundaries in an ultracrepidarian stupor.” The editor lost that argument because there is absolutely no other word in the English language that so exactly means what I wanted to say.
6. The most important rule of all
If following one of these rules makes something look worse, break it!
7. Appendices
Appendix A: Countries and territories
The following is a list of countries and inhabited dependent territories, including their full names, short names in English and Dutch, and the international standard two-letter country codes (where applicable).
Countries of the world
Flag | Long name | Short name (English) | Short name (Dutch) | Code | Sovereignty | Capital |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
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the Republic of Abkhazia | Abkhazia | Abchazië | GE-AB | Independent (partially recognised) | Sukhumi |
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the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan | Afghanistan | Afghanistan | AF | Independent | Kabul |
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the Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia | Akrotiri and Dhekelia | Akrotiri en Dhekelia | N/A | United Kingdom | N/A |
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Åland | Åland | Åland | AX | Finland | Mariehamn |
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the Republic of Albania | Albania | Albanië | AL | Independent | Tirana |
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the People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria | Algeria | Algerije | DZ | Independent | Algiers |
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the Territory of American Samoa | American Samoa | Amerikaans-Samoa | AS | United States | Pago Pago |
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the Principality of Andorra | Andorra | Andorra | AD | Independent | Andorra la Vella |
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the Republic of Angola | Angola | Angola | AO | Independent | Luanda |
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Anguilla | Anguilla | Anguilla | AI | United Kingdom | the Valley |
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Antarctica | Antarctica | Antarctica | AQ | Antarctic Treaty | N/A |
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Antigua and Barbuda | Antigua and Barbuda | Antigua en Barbuda | AG | Independent | St John's |
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the Argentine Republic | Argentina | Argentinië | AR | Independent | Buenos Aires |
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the Republic of Armenia | Armenia | Armenië | AM | Independent | Yerevan |
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the Republic of Artsakh | Artsakh | Artsach | N/A | Independent (partially recognised) | Stepanakert |
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the Country of Aruba | Aruba | Aruba | AW | Netherlands | Oranjestad |
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the Commonwealth of Australia | Australia | Australië | AU | Independent | Canberra |
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the Republic of Austria | Austria | Oostenrijk | AT | Independent | Vienna |
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the Republic of Azerbaijan | Azerbaijan | Azerbeidzjan | AZ | Independent | Baku |
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the Commonwealth of the Bahamas | the Bahamas | de Bahama’s | BS | Independent | Nassau |
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the Kingdom of Bahrain | Bahrain | Bahrein | BH | Independent | Manama |
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the People’s Republic of Bangladesh | Bangladesh | Bangladesh | BD | Independent | Dhaka |
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Barbados | Barbados | Barbados | BB | Independent | Bridgetown |
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the Republic of Belarus | Belarus | Wit-Rusland | BY | Independent | Minsk |
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the Kingdom of Belgium | Belgium | België | BE | Independent | Brussels |
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Belize | Belize | Belize | BZ | Independent | Belmopan |
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the Republic of Benin | Benin | Benin | BJ | Independent | Porto-Novo |
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Bermuda | Bermuda | Bermuda | BM | United Kingdom | Hamilton |
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the Kingdom of Bhutan | Bhutan | Bhutan | BT | Independent | Thimphu |
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the Plurinational State of Bolivia | Bolivia | Bolivia | BO | Independent | La Paz (executive and legislative), Sucre (judicial) |
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Bosnia and Herzegovina | Bosnia and Herzegovina | Bosnië en Herzegovina | BA | Independent | Sarajevo |
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the Republic of Botswana | Botswana | Botswana | BW | Independent | Gaborone |
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the Federative Republic of Brazil | Brazil | Brazilië | BR | Independent | Brasília |
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the Virgin Islands | the British Virgin Islands | de Britse Maagdeneilanden | VG | United Kingdom | Road Town |
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the Nation of Brunei Darussalam | Brunei | Brunei | BN | Independent | Bandar Seri Begawan |
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the Republic of Bulgaria | Bulgaria | Bulgarije | BG | Independent | Sofia |
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Burkina Faso | Burkina Faso | Burkina Faso | BF | Independent | Ouagadougou |
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the Republic of Burundi | Burundi | Burundi | BI | Independent | Gitega |
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the Kingdom of Cambodia | Cambodia | Cambodja | KH | Independent | Phnom Penh |
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the Republic of Cameroon | Cameroon | Kameroen | CM | Independent | Yaoundé |
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Canada | Canada | Canada | CA | Independent | Ottawa |
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the Republic of Cabo Verde | Cape Verde | Kaapverdië | CV | Independent | Praia |
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the Cayman Islands | the Cayman Islands | de Kaaimaneilanden | KY | United Kingdom | George Town |
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the Central African Republic | the Central African Republic | de Centraal-Afrikaanse Republiek | CF | Independent | Bangui |
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the Republic of Chad | Chad | Tsjaad | TD | Independent | N'Djamena |
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the British Indian Ocean Territory | the Chagos Islands | de Chagosarchipel | IO | United Kingdom | Diego Garcia |
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the Republic of Chile | Chile | Chili | CL | Independent | Santiago (executive and judicial), Valparaíso (legislative) |
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the People’s Republic of China | China | China | CN | Independent | Beijing |
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the Territory of Christmas Island | Christmas Island | Christmaseiland | CX | Australia | Flying Fish Cove |
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the Territory of Cocos (Keeling) Islands | the Cocos Islands | de Cocoseilanden | CC | Australia | West Island |
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the Republic of Colombia | Colombia | Colombia | CO | Independent | Bogotá |
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the Union of the Comoros | the Comoros | de Comoren | KM | Independent | Moroni |
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the Republic of the Congo | Congo-Brazzaville | Congo-Brazzaville | CG | Independent | Brazzaville |
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the Democratic Republic of the Congo | Congo-Kinshasa | Congo-Kinshasa | CD | Independent | Kinshasa |
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the Cook Islands | the Cook Islands | de Cookeilanden | CK | Partially dependent on New Zealand | Avarua |
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the Republic of Costa Rica | Costa Rica | Costa Rica | CR | Independent | San José |
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the Republic of Côte d’Ivoire | Côte d’Ivoire | Ivoorkust | CI | Independent | Yamoussoukro (de jure), Abidjan (de facto) |
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the Republic of Croatia | Croatia | Kroatië | HR | Independent | Zagreb |
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the Republic of Cuba | Cuba | Cuba | CU | Independent | Havana |
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the Country of Curaçao | Curaçao | Curaçao | CW | Netherlands | Willemstad |
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the Republic of Cyprus | Cyprus | Cyprus | CY | Independent | Nicosia |
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the Czech Republic | Czechia | Tsjechië | CZ | Independent | Prague |
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the Kingdom of Denmark | Denmark | Denemarken | DK | Independent | Copenhagen |
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the Republic of Djibouti | Djibouti | Djibouti | DJ | Independent | Djibouti |
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the Commonwealth of Dominica | Dominica | Dominica | DM | Independent | Roseau |
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the Dominican Republic | the Dominican Republic | de Dominicaanse Republiek | DO | Independent | Santo Domingo |
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the Republic of Ecuador | Ecuador | Ecuador | EC | Independent | Quito |
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the Arab Republic of Egypt | Egypt | Egypte | EG | Independent | Cairo |
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the Republic of El Salvador | El Salvador | El Salvador | SV | Independent | San Salvador |
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the Republic of Equatorial Guinea | Equatorial Guinea | Equatoriaal-Guinea | GQ | Independent | Malabo |
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the State of Eritrea | Eritrea | Eritrea | ER | Independent | Asmara |
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the Republic of Estonia | Estonia | Estland | EE | Independent | Tallinn |
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the Kingdom of Eswatini | Eswatini | Swaziland | SZ | Independent | Lobamba (royal and legislative), Mbabane (executive) |
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the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia | Ethiopia | Ethiopië | ET | Independent | Addis Ababa |
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the Færoe Islands | the Færoe Islands | de Faeröer | FO | Denmark | Tórshavn |
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the Falkland Islands | the Falkland Islands | de Falklandeilanden | FK | United Kingdom | Stanley |
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the Republic of Fiji | Fiji | Fiji | FJ | Independent | Suva |
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the Republic of Finland | Finland | Finland | FI | Independent | Helsinki |
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the French Republic | France | Frankrijk | FR | Independent | Paris |
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French Polynesia | French Polynesia | Frans-Polynesië | PF | France | Papeete |
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the Gabonese Republic | Gabon | Gabon | GA | Independent | Libreville |
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the Republic of the Gambia | the Gambia | Gambia | GM | Independent | Banjul |
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Georgia | Georgia | Georgië | GE | Independent | Tbilisi |
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the Federal Republic of Germany | Germany | Duitsland | DE | Independent | Berlin |
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the Republic of Ghana | Ghana | Ghana | GH | Independent | Accra |
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Gibraltar | Gibraltar | Gibraltar | GI | United Kingdom | Gibraltar [city state] |
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the Hellenic Republic | Greece | Griekenland | GR | Independent | Athens |
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Greenland | Greenland | Groenland | GL | Denmark | Nuuk |
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Grenada | Grenada | Grenada | GD | Independent | St. George's |
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the Territory of Guam | Guam | Guam | GU | United States | Hagåtña |
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the Republic of Guatemala | Guatemala | Guatemala | GT | Independent | Guatemala City |
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the Bailiwick of Guernsey | Guernsey | Guernsey | GG | United Kingdom | St. Peter Port |
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the Republic of Guinea | Guinea | Guinee | GN | Independent | Conakry |
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the Republic of Guinea-Bissau | Guinea-Bissau | Guinee-Bissau | GW | Independent | Bissau |
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the Coöperative Republic of Guyana | Guyana | Guyana | GY | Independent | Georgetown |
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the Republic of Haiti | Haiti | Haïti | HT | Independent | Port-au-Prince |
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the Republic of Honduras | Honduras | Honduras | HN | Independent | Tegucigalpa |
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the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People’s Republic of China | Hong Kong | Hongkong | HK | China | Hong Kong [city state] |
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Hungary | Hungary | Hongarije | HU | Independent | Budapest |
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Iceland | Iceland | IJsland | IS | Independent | Reykjavík |
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the Republic of India | India | India | IN | Independent | Delhi |
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the Republic of Indonesia | Indonesia | Indonesië | ID | Independent | Jakarta |
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the Islamic Republic of Iran | Iran | Iran | IR | Independent | Tehran |
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the Republic of Iraq | Iraq | Irak | IQ | Independent | Baghdad |
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Ireland | Ireland | Ierland | IE | Independent | Dublin |
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the Isle of Man | the Isle of Man | Man | IM | United Kingdom | Douglas |
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the State of Israel | Israel | Israël | IL | Independent | Jerusalem, Tel Aviv (diplomatic) |
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the Italian Republic | Italy | Italië | IT | Independent | Rome |
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Jamaica | Jamaica | Jamaica | JM | Independent | Kingston |
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Japan | Japan | Japan | JP | Independent | Tokyo |
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the Bailiwick of Jersey | Jersey | Jersey | JE | United Kingdom | St Helier |
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the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan | Jordan | Jordanië | JO | Independent | Amman |
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the Republic of Kazakhstan | Kazakhstan | Kazachstan | KZ | Independent | Nur-Sultan |
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the Republic of Kenya | Kenya | Kenia | KE | Independent | Nairobi |
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the Republic of Kiribati | Kiribati | Kiribati | KI | Independent | South Tarawa |
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the Republic of Kosovo | Kosovo | Kosovo | XK | Independent (partially recognised) | Pristina |
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the State of Kuwait | Kuwait | Koeweit | KW | Independent | Kuwait City |
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the Kyrgyz Republic | Kyrgyzstan | Kirghizië | KG | Independent | Bishkek |
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the Lao People’s Democratic Republic | Laos | Laos | LA | Independent | Vientiane |
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the Republic of Latvia | Latvia | Letland | LV | Independent | Riga |
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the Lebanese Republic | Lebanon | Libanon | LB | Independent | Beirut |
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the Kingdom of Lesotho | Lesotho | Lesotho | LS | Independent | Maseru |
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the Republic of Liberia | Liberia | Liberia | LR | Independent | Monrovia |
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the State of Libya | Libya | Libië | LY | Independent | Tripoli |
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the Principality of Liechtenstein | Liechtenstein | Liechtenstein | LI | Independent | Vaduz |
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the Republic of Lithuania | Lithuania | Litouwen | LT | Independent | Vilnius |
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the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg | Luxembourg | Luxemburg | LU | Independent | Luxembourg |
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the Macao Special Administrative Region of the People’s Republic of China | Macao | Macau | MO | China | Macao [city state] |
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the Republic of Madagascar | Madagascar | Madagaskar | MG | Independent | Antananarivo |
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the Republic of Malawi | Malawi | Malawi | MW | Independent | Lilongwe |
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Malaysia | Malaysia | Maleisië | MY | Independent | Kuala Lumpur (legislative), Putrajaya (administrative and judicial) |
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the Republic of Maldives | Maldives | de Maldiven | MV | Independent | Malé |
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the Republic of Mali | Mali | Mali | ML | Independent | Bamako |
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the Republic of Malta | Malta | Malta | MT | Independent | Valletta |
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the Republic of the Marshall Islands | the Marshall Islands | de Marshalleilanden | MH | Partially dependent on the U.S. | Majuro |
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the Islamic Republic of Mauritania | Mauritania | Mauritanië | MR | Independent | Nouakchott |
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the Republic of Mauritius | Mauritius | Mauritius | MU | Independent | Port Louis |
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the United Mexican States | Mexico | Mexico | MX | Independent | Mexico City |
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the Federated States of Micronesia | Micronesia | Micronesia | FM | Partially dependent on the U.S. | Palikir |
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the Republic of Moldova | Moldova | Moldavië | MD | Independent | Chișinău |
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the Principality of Monaco | Monaco | Monaco | MC | Independent | Monaco [city state] |
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Mongolia | Mongolia | Mongolië | MN | Independent | Ulaanbaatar |
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Montenegro | Montenegro | Montenegro | ME | Independent | Podgorica (legislative and judicial), Cetinje (executive) |
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Montserrat | Montserrat | Montserrat | MS | United Kingdom | Brades (de facto), Plymouth (de jure, ghost city) |
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the Kingdom of Morocco | Morocco | Marokko | MA | Independent | Rabat |
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the Republic of Mozambique | Mozambique | Mozambique | MZ | Independent | Maputo |
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the Republic of the Union of Myanmar | Myanmar | Myanmar | MM | Independent | Naypyidaw |
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the Republic of Namibia | Namibia | Namibië | NA | Independent | Windhoek |
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the Republic of Nauru | Nauru | Nauru | NR | Independent | Yaren (de facto) |
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the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal | Nepal | Nepal | NP | Independent | Kathmandu |
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the Kingdom of the Netherlands | the Netherlands | Nederland | NL | Independent | Den Haag (de facto), Amsterdam (de jure) |
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New Caledonia | New Caledonia | Nieuw-Caledonië | NC | France | Nouméa |
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New Zealand | New Zealand | Nieuw-Zeeland | NZ | Independent | Wellington |
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the Republic of Nicaragua | Nicaragua | Nicaragua | NI | Independent | Managua |
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the Republic of the Niger | Niger | Niger | NE | Independent | Niamey |
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the Federal Republic of Nigeria | Nigeria | Nigeria | NG | Independent | Abuja |
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Niue | Niue | Niue | NU | Partially dependent on New Zealand | Alofi |
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the Territory of Norfolk Island | Norfolk Island | Norfolk | NF | Australia | Kingston |
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the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea | North Korea | Noord-Korea | KP | Independent | Pyongyang |
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the Republic of North Macedonia | North Macedonia | Noord-Macedonië | MK | Independent | Skopje |
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the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus | Northern Cyprus | Noord-Cyprus | N/A | Independent (partially recognised) | Nicosia |
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the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands | the Northern Mariana Islands | de Noordelijke Marianen | MP | United States | Saipan |
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the Kingdom of Norway | Norway | Noorwegen | NO | Independent | Oslo |
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the Sultanate of Oman | Oman | Oman | OM | Independent | Muscat |
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the Islamic Republic of Pakistan | Pakistan | Pakistan | PK | Independent | Islamabad |
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the Republic of Palau | Palau | Palau | PW | Partially dependent on the U.S. | Ngerulmud |
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the State of Palestine | Palestine | Palestina | PS | It’s complicated | Ramallah (de facto), Jerusalem (de jure) |
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the Republic of Panama | Panama | Panama | PA | Independent | Panama City |
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the Independent State of Papua New Guinea | Papua New Guinea | Papoea-Nieuw-Guinea | PG | Independent | Port Moresby |
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the Republic of Paraguay | Paraguay | Paraguay | PY | Independent | Asunción |
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the Republic of Peru | Peru | Peru | PE | Independent | Lima |
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the Republic of the Philippines | the Philippines | de Filipijnen | PH | Independent | Manila |
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the Pitcairn, Henderson, Ducie, and Oeno Islands | the Pitcairn Islands | de Pitcairneilanden | PN | United Kingdom | Adamstown |
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the Republic of Poland | Poland | Polen | PL | Independent | Warsaw |
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the Portuguese Republic | Portugal | Portugal | PT | Independent | Lisbon |
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the Pridnestrovian Moldovian Republic | Pridnestrovie | Transnistrië | N/A | Independent (partially recognised) | Tiraspol |
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the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico | Puerto Rico | Puerto Rico | PR | United States | San Juan |
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the State of Qatar | Qatar | Qatar | QA | Independent | Doha |
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Romania | Romania | Roemenië | RO | Independent | Bucharest |
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the Russian Federation | Russia | Rusland | RU | Independent | Moscow |
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the Republic of Rwanda | Rwanda | Rwanda | RW | Independent | Kigali |
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the Collectivity of Saint-Barthélemy | Saint Barthélemy | Saint-Barthélemy | BL | France | Gustavia |
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Saint Helena, Ascension, and Tristan da Cunha | Saint Helena, Ascension, and Tristan da Cunha | Sint-Helena, Ascension, en Tristan da Cunha | SH | United Kingdom | Jamestown |
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the Federation of Saint Christopher and Nevis | Saint Kitts and Nevis | Saint Kitts en Nevis | KN | Independent | Basseterre |
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Saint Lucia | Saint Lucia | Saint Lucia | LC | Independent | Castries |
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the Collectivity of Saint-Martin | Saint Martin | Saint-Martin | MF | France | Marigot |
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the Collectivity of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon | Saint Pierre and Miquelon | Saint-Pierre en Miquelon | PM | France | St. Pierre |
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Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | Saint Vincent en de Grenadines | VC | Independent | Kingstown |
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the Independent State of Samoa | Samoa | Samoa | WS | Independent | Apia |
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the Republic of San Marino | San Marino | San Marino | SM | Independent | San Marino |
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the Democratic Republic of São Tomé and Príncipe | São Tomé and Príncipe | São Tomé and Príncipe | ST | Independent | São Tomé |
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the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia | Saudi Arabia | Saoedi-Arabië | SA | Independent | Riyadh |
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the Republic of Senegal | Senegal | Senegal | SN | Independent | Dakar |
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the Republic of Serbia | Serbia | Servië | RS | Independent | Belgrade |
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the Republic of Seychelles | Seychelles | de Seychellen | SC | Independent | Victoria |
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the Republic of Sierra Leone | Sierra Leone | Sierra Leone | SL | Independent | Freetown |
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the Republic of Singapore | Singapore | Singapore | SG | Independent | Singapore [city state] |
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the Country of Sint Maarten | Sint Maarten | Sint Maarten | SX | Netherlands | Philipsburg |
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the Slovak Republic | Slovakia | Slowakije | SK | Independent | Bratislava |
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the Republic of Slovenia | Slovenia | Slovenië | SI | Independent | Ljubljana |
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Solomon Islands | Solomon Islands | de Salomonseilanden | SB | Independent | Honiara |
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the Federal Republic of Somalia | Somalia | Somalië | SO | Independent | Mogadishu |
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the Republic of Somaliland | Somaliland | Somaliland | N/A | Independent (partially recognised) | Hargeisa |
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the Republic of South Africa | South Africa | Zuid-Afrika | ZA | Independent | Bloemfontein (judicial), Cape Town (legislative), Pretoria (executive) |
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the Republic of Korea | South Korea | Zuid-Korea | KR | Independent | Seoul |
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the Republic of South Ossetia the State of Alania | South Ossetia | Zuid-Ossetië | N/A | Independent (partially recognised) | Tskhinvali |
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the Republic of South Sudan | South Sudan | Zuid-Soedan | SS | Independent | Juba |
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the Kingdom of Spain | Spain | Spanje | ES | Independent | Madrid |
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the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka | Sri Lanka | Sri Lanka | LK | Independent | Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte (legislative), Colombo (executive, judicial) |
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the Republic of the Sudan | Sudan | Soedan | SD | Independent | Khartoum |
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the Republic of Suriname | Suriname | Suriname | SR | Independent | Paramaribo |
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Svalbard | Svalbard | Spitsbergen | SJ | Norway, governed by treaty | Longyearbyen |
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the Kingdom of Sweden | Sweden | Zweden | SE | Independent | Stockholm |
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the Swiss Confederation | Switzerland | Zwitserland | CH | Independent | Bern (de facto) |
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the Syrian Arab Republic | Syria | Syrië | SY | Independent | Damascus |
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the Republic of China | Taiwan | Taiwan | TW | Independent (partially recognised) | Taipei |
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the Republic of Tajikistan | Tajikistan | Tadzjikistan | TJ | Independent | Dushanbe |
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the United Republic of Tanzania | Tanzania | Tanzania | TZ | Independent | Dodoma (legislative), Dar es Salaam (executive and judicial) |
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the Kingdom of Thailand | Thailand | Thailand | TH | Independent | Bangkok |
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the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste | Timor-Leste | Oost-Timor | TL | Independent | Dili |
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the Togolese Republic | Togo | Togo | TG | Independent | Lomé |
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Tokelau | Tokelau | Tokelau | TK | New Zealand | N/A |
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the Kingdom of Tonga | Tonga | Tonga | TO | Independent | Nukuʻalofa |
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the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago | Trinidad and Tobago | Trinidad en Tobago | TT | Independent | Port of Spain |
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the Republic of Tunisia | Tunisia | Tunesië | TN | Independent | Tunis |
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the Republic of Turkey | Turkey | Turkije | TR | Independent | Ankara |
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Turkmenistan | Turkmenistan | Turkmenistan | TM | Independent | Ashgabat |
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the Turks and Caicos Islands | the Turks and Caicos Islands | de Turks- en Caicoseilanden | TC | United Kingdom | Cockburn Town |
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Tuvalu | Tuvalu | Tuvalu | TV | Independent | Funafuti |
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the Virgin Islands of the United States | the U.S. Virgin Islands | de Amerikaanse Maagdeneilanden | VI | United States | Charlotte Amelie |
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the Republic of Uganda | Uganda | Oeganda | UG | Independent | Kampala |
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Ukraine | Ukraine | Oekraïne | UA | Independent | Kyiv |
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the United Arab Emirates | the United Arab Emirates | de Verenigde Arabische Emiraten | AE | Independent | Abu Dhabi |
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the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland | the United Kingdom | het Verenigd Koninkrijk | GB | Independent | London |
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the United States of America | the United States | de Verenigde Staten | US | Independent | Washington, DC |
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the Oriental Republic of Uruguay | Uruguay | Uruguay | UY | Independent | Montevideo |
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the Republic of Uzbekistan | Uzbekistan | Oezbekistan | UZ | Independent | Tashkent |
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the Republic of Vanuatu | Vanuatu | Vanuatu | VU | Independent | Port Vila |
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the Vatican City State | Vatican City | Vaticaanstad | VA | Independent | Vatican City [city state] |
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the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela | Venezuela | Venezuela | VE | Independent | Caracas |
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the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam | Vietnam | Vietnam | VN | Independent | Hanoi |
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the Territory of the Wallis and Futuna Islands | Wallis and Futuna | Wallis en Futuna | WF | France | Mata Utu |
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the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic | Western Sahara | de Westelijke Sahara | EH | It’s complicated | Tifariti (de facto), Laayoune (de jure) |
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the Republic of Yemen | Yemen | Jemen | YE | Independent | Sana’a |
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the Republic of Zambia | Zambia | Zambia | ZM | Independent | Lusaka |
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the Republic of Zimbabwe | Zimbabwe | Zimbabwe | ZW | Independent | Harare |
Appendix B: County, province, and state abbreviations
In addition to the international standard letter codes, many Anglosphere nations have traditional, written abbreviations of varying length for their various subnational divisions. I have reproduced those for the United Kingdom, United States, Canada, and Australia here.
Country abbreviations
County, state, or province | Abbreviation |
---|---|
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|
Bedfordshire | Beds. |
Berkshire | Berks. |
Buckinghamshire | Bucks. |
Cambridgeshire | Cambs. |
Cheshire | Ches. |
City of London (non-historic) | C. of L. |
Cornwall | Corn. |
Cumberland | Cumb. |
Cumbria (non-historic) | Cum. |
Derbyshire | Derbys. |
Devon | Devon |
Dorset | Dor. |
County Durham | Co. Dur. |
Essex | Essex |
Gloucestershire | Glos. |
Greater London (non-historic) | G. L. |
Greater Manchester (non-historic) | G. M. |
Hampshire | Hants. |
Herefordshire | Here. |
Hertfordshire | Herts. |
Huntingdonshire | Hunts. |
Isle of Wight (non-historic) | I. of W. |
Kent | Kent |
Lancashire | Lancs. |
Leicestershire | Leics. |
Lincolnshire | Lincs. |
Middlesex | Middx. |
Norfolk | Norf. |
Northamptonshire | Northants. |
Northumberland | Northd. |
Notthinghamshire | Notts. |
Oxfordshire | Oxon. |
Rutland | Rut. |
Shropshire | Salop |
Somerset | Som. |
Staffordshire | Staffs. |
Suffolk | Suff. |
Surrey | Sy. |
Sussex | Ssx. |
Tyne and Wear (non-historic) | T. & W. |
Warwickshire | Warks. |
Westmorland | Westm. |
Wiltshire | Wilts. |
Worcestershire | Worcs. |
Yorkshire | Yorks. |
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|
Aberdeenshire | Aber. |
Argyll | Arg. |
Ayrshire | Ayr. |
Banffshire | Banf. |
Berwickshire | Berw. |
Bute | Bute |
Caithness | Caith. |
Clackmannanshire | Clack. |
Cromartyshire | Crom. |
Dumfriesshire | Dumfrie. |
Dunbartonshire | Dunbar. |
Edinburghshire | Edin. |
Elginshire | Elg. |
Fife | Fife |
Forfarshire | Forf. |
Haddingtonshire | Hadd. |
Inverness-shire | Inver. |
Kincardineshire | Kincar. |
Kinross-shire | Kin. |
Kirkcudbrightshire | Kirkud. |
Lanarkshire | Lan. |
Linlithgowshire | Lin. |
Nairnshire | Nairn. |
Orkney | Orkney |
Peeblesshire | Peeb. |
Perthshire | Per. |
Renfrewshire | Renf. |
Ross-shire | Ross. |
Roxburghshire | Roxb. |
Selkirkshire | Selk. |
Shetland | Zet. |
Stirlingshire | Stirl. |
Sutherland | Suther. |
Wigtownshire | Wig. |
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|
Anglesey | Angle. |
Brecknockshire | Breck. |
Caernarfonshire | Caern. |
Cardiganshire | Card. |
Carmarthenshire | Carm. |
Denbighshire | Denb. |
Flintshire | Fl. |
Glamorganshire | Glam. |
Merionethshire | Meri. |
Monmouthshire | Monm. |
Montgomeryshire | Mont. |
Pembrokeshire | Pembs. |
Radnorshire | Rad. |
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|
County Antrim | Co. Ant. |
County Armagh | Co. Arm. |
County Carlow | Co. Carl. |
County Cavan | Co. Cav. |
County Clare | Co. Clare |
County Cork | Co. Cork |
County Derry / County Londonderry | Co. Derry / Co. Londy. |
County Donegal | Co. Dngl. |
County Down | Co. Down |
County Dublin | Co. Dub. |
County Fermanagh | Co. Ferm. |
County Galway | Co. Gal. |
County Kerry | Co. Kerry |
County Kildare | Co. Kild. |
County Kilkenny | Co. Kilk. |
County Laois | Co. Laois |
County Leitrim | Co. Leit. |
County Limerick | Co. Lim. |
County Longford | Co. Long. |
County Louth | Co. Louth |
County Mayo | Co. Mayo |
County Meath | Co. Meath |
County Monaghan | Co. Mongh. |
County Offaly | Co. Ofly. |
County Roscommon | Co. Rosc. |
County Sligo | Co. Sligo |
County Tipperary | Co. Tipp. |
County Tyrone | Co. Tyr. |
County Waterford | Co. Wat. |
County Westmeath | Co. Wmth. |
County Wexford | Co. Wex. |
County Wicklow | Co. Wklw. |
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|
Alabama | Ala. |
Alaska | Alaska |
Arizona | Ariz. |
Arkansas | Ark. |
California | Calif. |
Colorado | Colo. |
Connecticut | Conn. |
Delaware | Del. |
District of Columbia | D.C. |
Florida | Fla. |
Georgia | Ga. |
Hawaiʻi | Hawaiʻi |
Idaho | Idaho |
Illinois | Ill. |
Indiana | Ind. |
Iowa | Iowa |
Kansas | Kan. |
Kentucky | Ky. |
Lousiana | La. |
Maine | Maine |
Maryland | Md. |
Massachusetts | Mass. |
Michigan | Mich. |
Minnesota | Minn. |
Mississippi | Miss. |
Missouri | Mo. |
Montana | Mont. |
Nebraska | Neb. |
Nevada | Nev. |
New Hampshire | N.H. |
New Jersey | N.J. |
New Mexico | N.M. |
New York | N.Y. |
North Carolina | N.C. |
North Dakota | N.D. |
Ohio | Ohio |
Oklahoma | Okla. |
Oregon | Ore. |
Pennsylvania | Pa. |
Rhode Island | R.I. |
South Carolina | S.C. |
South Dakota | S.D. |
Tennessee | Tenn. |
Texas | Texas |
Utah | Utah |
Vermont | Vt. |
Virginia | Va. |
Washington | Wash. |
West Virginia | W. Va. |
Wisconsin | Wis. |
Wyoming | Wyo. |
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|
Alberta | Alta. |
British Columbia | B.C. |
Manitoba | Man. |
New Brunswick | N.B. |
Newfoundland and Labrador | N.L. |
Northwest Territories | N.W.T. |
Nova Scotia | N.S. |
Nunavut | Nvt. |
Ontario | Ont. |
Prince Edward Island | P.E.I. |
Quebec | Que. |
Saskatchewan | Sask. |
Yukon | Yuk. |
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|
Australian Capital Territory | A.C.T. |
New South Wales | N.S.W. |
Northern Territory | N.T. |
Queensland | Qld. |
South Australia | S.A. |
Tasmania | Tas. |
Victoria | Vic. |
Western Australia | W.A. |
Appendix C: The Nato spelling alphabet
The Nato spelling alphabet, sometimes called the Nato phonetic alphabet for reasons i can’t quite seem to divine, is the international standard for spelling out words letter-by-letter. It’s nice to have on hand for reference.
A | Alpha | N | November |
B | Bravo | O | Oscar |
C | Charlie | P | Papa |
D | Delta | Q | Quebec |
E | Echo | R | Romeo |
F | Foxtrot | S | Sierra |
G | Golf | T | Tango |
H | Hotel | U | Uniform |
I | India | V | Victor |
J | Juliet | W | Whiskey |
K | Kilo | X | X-ray |
L | Lima | Y | Yankee |
M | Mike | Z | Zulu |
Appendix D: Imperial measurements
This table details the most common imperial measurements as used in the UK. Metric conversions are deliberately inexact, to make it easier to calculate in my tiny little Euro-brain.
Unit | Imperial equivalent | Metric equivalent |
---|---|---|
Length | ||
Inch | N/A | ~2½ cm |
Foot | 12 inches | ~30 cm |
Yard | 3 feet | ~90 cm |
Mile | 1,760 yards | ~1.6 km |
Liquids | ||
Fluid ounce | N/A | ~30 ml |
Pint | 20 fluid ounces | ~550 ml |
Quart | 2 pints | ~1.1 l |
Gallon | 4 quarts | ~4½ l |
Weights | ||
Ounce | N/A | ~30 g |
Pound | 16 ounces | ~450 g |
Stone | 14(‽) pounds | ~6 kg |